What is the impact of restrictions on television gambling advertising during live sport? An investigation using quasi-experimental and econometric methods

Introduction: Gambling is a public health problem; gambling advertising is a potential risk factor for gambling harm. This thesis explores the impact of restrictions on gambling advertising on television, with a particular focus on live sports.

Methods: Systematic review and econometric methods using primary self-reported gambling data, and secondary television advertising and scheduling data were used. Quantitative analysis included a quasi-experiment during the 2022 football World Cup, and an econometric analysis of the impact of existing advertising restrictions on the presence of advertising on television. Regression models included linear, count, Propensity Score (PSM), and Inverse Probability Weighted (IPW) matching models.

Results: The existing evidence suggests that sports-related gambling advertising is associated with increases in gambling behaviour. Self-reported effects of advertising appear to be higher in those who are already higher-risk gamblers, and therefore at increased risk of harm. Advertising on television during live World Cup broadcasts influenced the overall frequency of bets placed, and the probability of placing a bet in a higher-risk population group. An industry-led advertising restriction, known as the ‘whistle-to-whistle’ (W2W) ban, reduced the presence of advertising on television during live football broadcasts, but was associated with an increase in television advertising around live horse racing, which is not subject to the restrictions. Restrictions were associated with little impact on non-sports programming.

Conclusion: This thesis demonstrates that television advertising around live sports increases gambling behaviour amongst a high-risk group despite the introduction of industry-led advertising restriction in 2019, which reduced the total frequency of advertising during live sports. During this time, advertising may have spread to unrestricted live-sports programming. This raises concerns about the overall efficacy of industry-led advertising restrictions. Supported by the precautionary principle, this suggests UK gambling advertising policy may require stronger regulation beyond current self-regulatory measures to effectively address the negative consequences of gambling advertising on gambling behaviour.