The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries is one of the most prolific societal changes to have affected humanity. The rapid urbanisation and unprecedented population growth in industrialised centres led to the fast deterioration of living and working conditions. Air, water, and space restrictions due to the lack of early public health precautions resulted in a number of problems, affecting the country’s demography as well as its health and disease profile. According to historical accounts, poor living and working conditions, low life expectancy, malnutrition and infectious disease were common. This research has confirmed these accounts through the osteological and palaeopathological records.
This thesis is a comprehensive analysis of the demography, health and disease status of urban populations of 18th- and 19th-century England. The analysis results of the working-class skeletal assemblage at St Hilda’s burial ground (1763-1855), South Shields, were contrasted with the data from fifteen contemporary comparative sites of various socio-economic and geographic backgrounds. The aim of this undertaking was twofold; to assess the demographic structure and health and disease profile of the case study and, therefore, determine if this sample was following the general demographic and health and disease profile of the historical period; and to determine the general impact of the Industrial Revolution. Some of the criteria used to assess and contrast the health and disease status of the population and identify conflicting patterns in health stress and longevity between the various population groups include – but are not limited to – increased early life mortality, trauma patterns and congenital disorders. No major geographic divisions were observed across sites throughout England, but a certain degree of socio-economic status dependency was revealed.
Increased mortality was observed in early life between birth and age six and then middle adulthood. Males across sites were more likely to die earlier due to gender disparities as they were exposed to various occupational and lifestyle hazards. Females had increased chances of reaching senior ages after overcoming certain dangers of earlier adulthood (e.g. pregnancy, childbirth) due to life style differences but also due to indoor-based living. A potential association between an increased prevalence of congenital disorders in middle adults and early death was identified in St Hilda’s, suggesting a reduction in longevity associated with early life stress due to poor maternal health and exogenous factors during gestation that shortened the life course in adulthood. Genetic defects and exposure to harmful factors via the mother’s environment were also evident as the increased prevalence of preterm and neonatal deaths in St Hilda’s and comparative sites shows. Similar rates of specific and non-specific indicators were revealed across sites indicating morbid conditions throughout England. The morbid conditions as well as poor maternal health, exogenous factors and poor diet were also revealed through the presence of early life metabolic and hematopoietic disorders across sites. Unlike geographic location, a degree of socio-economic status dependency was revealed for the mortality profile, with a few sites of higher status exceeding middle adulthood; showing that the socio-economic circumstances, influenced the longevity of these individuals. A socio-economic status denominator also existed for particular conditions (e.g. maxillary sinusitis and fractures) among adults. Residual rickets in some assemblages showed some socio-economic dependency, demonstrating that it was status which helped these individuals to overcome these episodes in early life. At the same time, this could also be indicative of different childrearing practices. Despite these differences in mortality and morbidity, no significant differences were observed in adult stature across sites.
