Women who left two Koreas: gendered, diasporic, and multicultural experiences of North Korean female defectors in the United States

The number of North Korean defectors leaving South Korea to settle in third countries has been increasing, while cases of individuals seeking to settle directly in Western nations without first residing in South Korea have also steadily grown. Despite shared ethnicity, heritage, culture and language, some North Korean defectors choose not to remain in South Korea as their final destination, prompting critical questions about their underlying motivations. This thesis examines the lived experiences of North Korean women defectors whose complex trajectories span fleeing North Korea, migrating through transit countries, residing in South Korea and ultimately resettling in the United States. Specifically, the case of the United States remains highly underexplored, highlighting the significance of this study in addressing a critical gap in the migration and refugee literature within North Korean studies. By conceptualising these multi-stage journeys as a holistic process rather than fragmented stages, with a specific focus on onward migration pathways that have been rarely explored across various disciplines, this research explicitly locates its core scholarly contribution within the realm of migration studies. Given the high representation of women among North Korean defectors, the study explores the deeply gendered aspects of their choices, focusing on the intersections of gender, migration and identity as key analytical categories. Drawing on an ethnographic narrative approach, the research examines how these women's lives, subjectivity, and agency evolve as they transition from North Korean migrants to Asian minority women in the United States across different migration stages. In so doing, this thesis provides critical insights into the growing academic conversations on onward migration, expanding the theoretical understanding of the emerging overseas North Korean diaspora.