The fate, exposure, effects and risks of pharmaceuticals in the soil environment

Pharmaceuticals are biologically active compounds widely used in human and veterinary medicine and are continuously released into the environment, yet their risks to terrestrial ecosystems remain underexplored. This study evaluated the risks posed by selected pharmaceuticals using a preliminary risk quotient (RQ) screening approach, followed by investigations of their fate in soil and ecotoxicological effects on microbial nitrogen transformation. Also, a survey of veterinarians and farmers in South-West Nigeria was conducted to model environmental exposure to veterinary pharmaceuticals and assess risks to terrestrial life. Antibiotics emerged as the therapeutic class with the highest RQs, with fluoroquinolones (FQs) and tetracyclines (TCs) posing the greatest concern. Overall, this study advances understanding of pharmaceutical behaviour and risks in soils and highlights the need for improved terrestrial risk assessment frameworks.