Meccan Female Society (3rd-4th /9th-10th centuries) in the light of Kufic inscriptions from the al-Maᶜlāh Cemetery, Mecca: An epigraphic and historical study

This study focuses on inscribed Islamic tombstones from al-Maclāh Cemetery in Mecca that were transported to the Museum of H̱ uzām Palace in Jeddah for preservation. While the collection contains hundreds of tombstones of deceased men and women, this work specifically studies 59 inscriptions related to 3rd/9th and 4th/10th-century women to understand their familial origins and place in Meccan society.
To achieve this, the contents of these inscriptions are studied and analysed. The names of the deceased women are identified and their prevalence among Arabic historical sources are discussed, as are the attribution of each deceased woman, whether to their tribe, family origins or masters who emancipated them from slavery. Based on the inscriptions, the women are placed in one of three categories:
1. Those with deep Meccan ancestral roots, either attributed to the Qurayš tribe, their allies or the common people of Mecca.
2. Enslaved maids who were brought to Mecca and lived with their masters. Many acquired their freedom by emancipation but others served as concubines and had their masters’ children. Accordingly, these concubines acquired their freedom by being mothers of free-born sons (ɔUmmuhāt al-ɔawlād).
3. Descendants of migrant ancestors who moved to Mecca either from within the Arabian Peninsula or from elsewhere. They mostly migrated as pilgrims but then settled, discontinuing their relationships with their homelands. Their female descendants became part of the female community.
Finally, to add to the literature of early Islamic inscriptions, the characteristics of each tombstone’s inscription are analysed, including the shapes of the letters, the methods of their execution (e.g. incised Kufic or carved in relief), their aesthetics and decoration, if any, and the forms and decoration of frames surrounding the text. When no dates are given, these characteristics are compared to other previously published inscriptions to assess an approximate date.