Life in the Industrial North of England (1700 – 1850) as seen through Human Dental Calculus: A Tale of Two Cities

This thesis investigates living conditions and health during the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850) in two industrial towns in the north of England, Manchester and Halifax, through the medium of human dental calculus. This research employs established methods of micro-debris analysis, observed in dental calculus, in conjunction with skeletal analysis, comparison with other contemporary skeletal populations, and historical documentation. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of debris trapped in the mouths of individuals allows for direct observation of particles ingested by the individual, a pseudo in situ observation which compliments and enhances understanding of the lived experience in the past. Unexpected direct observation of food adulterants and fungal evidence of substandard housing and food storage reveals the extent of pervasive adulteration and low hygiene levels in all types of housing. Skeletal analyses and dietary documentation confirm the poor state of health for all socio-economic levels, but also reveals that residents of Halifax were healthier than all contemporary populations.