Men, Masculinities, and Loneliness: a mixed-methods study of men’s perspectives in a wider context

Background Loneliness is an increasing concern that has been linked to negative physical and mental health. Sex and gender have been theorised as an important influence on loneliness in men, yet empirical research is limited. Aims Investigate the influence of sex and gender on men’s constructions and/or experiences of loneliness. Method A mixed-methods approach was taken. A critical review of the literature synthesised existing evidence, informing a cross-sectional quantitative study interrogating hypotheses derived from the review. An interpretive qualitative study, using semi-structured interviews with a diverse sample of men, considered men’s perspectives on loneliness. A triangulation protocol and thematic syntheses systematically contrasted the findings of each study. Findings In the quantitative study, men showed lower odds than women of stating they are lonely in response to a direct survey item even when controlling for an indirect scale measuring loneliness. Men also showed evidence of more alcohol consumption when lonely, less loneliness in response to severe isolation, and a greater association between partner status and loneliness. In the qualitative study, socially negotiated self-worth and positive mental occupation represented none-loneliness. Social connections were frequently vital to both. Masculine notions of a reluctance to admit loneliness, of loneliness as associated with failure, of avoiding displaying vulnerability, and of masculine-appropriate behaviours, interests, abilities, and roles, impacted whether and how none-loneliness was achieved. The mixed-methods analysis concluded that masculine ideals of invulnerability, nuclear family, and social comparison were the most consistent influence on men’s self-worth and positive occupation, and thus loneliness. Conclusions A novel conceptualisation of loneliness in men suggests facilitating socially negotiated self-worth and providing opportunities for positive occupation are vital. Masculinities often negatively impacted loneliness, yet could provide a cultural framework for social connections and self-worth, thus require deconstructing. Gender-sensitive policy and practice, including a greater focus on primary prevention, is recommended to address loneliness in men.